hi n good wishes

its the 21st june and it would bve 23rd june on monday thereby changing the long days to shorten untill 22 decenber

have a great weekend

regards

just for all who visit and thanks

its been quite difficult these days to have electricity most of the times in office or home

the blogging and netsurfing that i used to do on regular bsis besides upadting of downloads from microsoft has also been affected by the power/electric current

othar than the above two reasons its quite hot also and prices gone up with rise in crude oil prices touching 140$

enjoy

regards bestwishes

its hot and the power goes off mostly

so lets enjoy the heat than

hi

sorry for being giving little time
here
have a great
time

civilizations

Indus Valley Civilization

I

INTRODUCTION

Indus Valley Civilization

In the Indus valley area now known as Pakistan, an advanced Bronze Age culture rose up about 2500 bc and lasted for nearly 1000 years. Scholars do not know how it began or whether its people were related to those who now occupy Southwest Asia. Nomadic tribes called Aryans invaded the Indus River valley, probably from the region north of the Caspian Sea, in 1500 bc. The Aryan culture became dominant in the area, eclipsing that of its predecessors.

© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Indus Valley Civilization (2500?-1700 bc), earliest known civilization of South Asia, corresponding to the Bronze Age cultures of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Crete (Kríti). The remains of settlements belonging to this culture have been found throughout the Indus River valley in Pakistan, westward along the coast to the Iranian border, in India's northwestern states as far east as New Delhi, and on the Oxus River in northern Afghanistan. The Indus Valley civilization encompasses one of the largest geographical areas covered by a single Bronze Age culture.

II

CHARACTERISTICS

Indus Valley Art

The Indus Valley civilization thrived in the area of present-day Pakistan and western India between about 2500 and 1700 bc. A farming community, the civilization created artwork associated with agricultural life. Found at the archaeological site of Mohenjo-Daro, this ceramic figure depicts two oxen pulling a woman in a cart.

Scala/Art Resource, NY

Excavated settlements reveal blocks of mud-brick buildings separated by streets, and the cities, such as Mohenjo-Daro and Harappā, are dominated by large public buildings. These buildings were at one time identified as colleges, temples, granaries, and palaces, but later research has not confirmed such interpretations. The cities are usually divided into two distinctive groups of buildings, one of which may be enclosed by a wall.

The work of Indus Valley artisans shows a high degree of craft specialization. Characteristic artifacts include a distinctive black-on-red pottery, ceramic toys and figurines, etched carnelian beads, metal (bronze, silver, and gold) ornaments and tools, and stamp seals with an undeciphered script. Unfortunately, the nature of the social organization in this complex culture still evades complete interpretation.

Sometime after 2000 bc, complex ecological changes occurred in the Indus Valley area, forcing abandonment of many settlements and altering the basic characteristics of the civilization. Late Indus Valley culture is known mainly from excavated small farming villages. Artifacts associated with these sites are stylistically similar to earlier types but show more regional variation.

III

HISTORY OF EXCAVATIONS

Stone Tablets from Mohenjo-Daro

These stone tablets were found at Mohenjo-Daro, an archaeological site in modern Pakistan. The city of Mohenjo-Daro flourished during the Indus Valley civilization (2500?-1700 bc). Merchants use the stone tablets, which show examples of pictographic writing, to mark their goods.

Charles and Josette Lenars/Corbis

The Indus Valley civilization was first defined by the British archaeologist Sir John Marshall's diggings at Mohenjo-Daro and M. S. Vat's excavations at Harappā (both in what is now Pakistan) in the 1920s, and it is sometimes called Harappān civilization after the latter site. In 1946 the British archaeologist Sir Mortimer Wheeler, excavating at Harappā, located stylistically different pottery in the earliest occupied areas. Subsequent discoveries at nearby Kot Diji established that this early pottery at Harappā belonged to the early Bronze Age Kot Diji culture. Since 1960 Indian, Pakistani, and Western scholars have defined several additional early Bronze Age cultures at Goth Āmri, Sothi, Gumla, and other sites in Pakistan, each of which has some traits in common and contributed to the formation of the Indus Valley civilization.

countries

Afghanistan Facts and Figures

Basic Facts
Official name	Islamic Republic of Afghanistan
Capital	Kabul
Area	652,225 sq km
	251,825 sq mi
People
Population	31,056,997 (2006 estimate)
Population growth
Population growth rate	2.67 percent (2006 estimate)
Projected population in 2025	50,252,227 (2006 estimate)
Projected population in 2050	81,933,479 (2006 estimate)
Population density	48 persons per sq km (2006 estimate)
	124 persons per sq mi (2006 estimate)
Urban/rural distribution
Share urban	23 percent (2003 estimate)
Share rural	77 percent (2003 estimate)
Largest cities, with population
Kabul	2,678,000 (2003 estimate)
Kandahār	225,500 (1988 estimate)
Herāt	177,300 (1988 estimate)
Ethnic groups
Pashtun	38 percent
Tajik	25 percent
Hazara	19 percent
Minor ethnic groups (Chahar Aimaks, Turkmen, Baluchi, Nuristani, and others)	12 percent
Uzbek	6 percent
Languages
Afghan Persian (Dari)	50 percent
Pashto	35 percent
Turkic languages (primarily Uzbek and Turkmen)	11 percent
30 minor languages (primarily Balochi and Pashai)	4 percent
Many people are multilingual
Religious affiliations
Sunni Muslim	84 percent
Shia Muslim	15 percent
Other	1 percent
Health and Education
Life expectancy
Total	43.3 years (2006 estimate)
Female	43.5 years (2006 estimate)
Male	43.2 years (2006 estimate)
Infant mortality rate	160 deaths per 1,000 live births (2006 estimate)
Population per physician	5,381 people (2004)
Population per hospital bed	2,500 people (2001)
Literacy rate
Total	36.3 percent (2000)
Female	20.8 percent (2000)
Male	51 percent (2000)
Education expenditure as a share of gross national product (GNP)	2 percent (1980)
Number of years of compulsory schooling	6 years (2002-2003)
Number of students per teacher, primary school	61 students per teacher (2002-2003)
Government
Form of government	Islamic state; transitional government
Voting qualifications	18 years of age; universal
Constitution	In January 2004 the loya jirga ratified a new constitution
Armed forces
Total number of military personnel	Undetermined
Military expenditures as a share of gross domestic product (GDP)	Undetermined
Economy
Gross domestic product (GDP, in U.S.$)	5,761 million (2004)
GDP per capita (U.S.$)	160 (2003)
GDP by economic sector
Agriculture, forestry, fishing	52 percent (2002)
Industry	24.1 percent (2002)
Services	23.9 percent (2002)
Employment
Number of workers	11,696,531 (2003)
Workforce share of economic sector
Agriculture, forestry, fishing	70 percent (1990)
Industry	11 percent (1990)
Services	19 percent (1990)
Unemployment rate	Not available
National budget (U.S.$)
Total revenue	267.1 million (2004)
Total expenditure	758 million (2004)
Monetary unit
1 afghani (AF), consisting of 100 puls
Major trade partners for exports
Pakistan, India, Finland, Germany, Belgium
Major trade partners for imports
Pakistan, South Korea, Japan, United States, Germany
Energy, Communications, and Transportation
Electricity production
Electricity from thermal sources	30.39 percent (2003 estimate)
Electricity from hydroelectric sources	69.61 percent (2003 estimate)
Electricity from nuclear sources	0 percent (2003 estimate)
Electricity from geothermal, solar, and wind sources	0 percent (2003 estimate)
Number of radios per 1,000 people	132 (1997)
Number of telephones per 1,000 people	2 (2004)
Number of televisions per 1,000 people	12 (2000 estimate)
Number of Internet hosts per 10,000 people	0 (2000)
Daily newspaper circulation per 1,000 people	6 (1996)
Number of motor vehicles per 1,000 people	2.3 (1997)
Paved road as a share of total roads	24 percent (2003)
Sources
Basic Facts and People sections
Area data are from the statistical bureaus of individual countries. Population, population growth rate, and population projections are from the United States Census Bureau, International Programs Center, International Data Base (IDB) (www.census.gov). Urban and rural population data are from the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations (UN), FAOSTAT database (www.fao.org). Largest cities population data and political divisions data are from the statistical bureaus of individual countries. Ethnic divisions and religion data are largely from the latest Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) World Factbook and from various country censuses and reports. Language data are largely from the Ethnologue, Languages of the World, Summer Institute of Linguistics International (www.sil.org).
Health and Education section
Life expectancy and infant mortality data are from the United States Census Bureau, International Programs Center, International database (IDB) (www.census.gov). Population per physician and population per hospital bed data are from the World Health Organization (WHO) (www.who.int). Education data are from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) database (www.unesco.org).
Government section
Government, independence, legislature, constitution, highest court, and voting qualifications data are largely from various government Web sites, the latest Europa World Yearbook, and the latest Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) World Factbook. The armed forces data is from Military Balance.
Economy section
Gross domestic product (GDP), GDP per capita, GDP by economic sectors, employment, and national budget data are from the World Bank database (www.worldbank.org). Monetary unit, agriculture, mining, manufacturing, exports, imports, and major trade partner information is from the statistical bureaus of individual countries, latest Europa World Yearbook, and various United Nations and International Monetary Fund (IMF) publications.
Energy, Communication, and Transportation section
Electricity information is from the Energy Information Administration (EIA) database (www.eia.doe.gov). Radio, telephone, television, and newspaper information is from the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) database (www.unesco.org). Internet hosts, motor vehicles, and road data are from the World Bank database (www.worldbank.org).
Note
Figures may not total 100 percent due to rounding.

debate

Atheism

I

INTRODUCTION

Numbers of Followers of All Religions

This chart shows the percentage of the world's population that adheres to several of the major world religions. About one-third of the world’s population adheres to a form of Christianity. Latin America has the largest number of Christians, most of whom are Roman Catholics. Islam is practiced by over one-fifth of the world’s population, most of whom live in parts of Asia, particularly the Middle East.

© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

Atheism, the denial of or lack of belief in the existence of a god or gods. The term atheism comes from the Greek prefix a-, meaning “without,” and the Greek word theos, meaning “deity.” The denial of god’s existence is also known as strong, or positive, atheism, whereas the lack of belief in god is known as negative, or weak, atheism. Although atheism is often contrasted with agnosticism—the view that we cannot know whether a deity exists or not and should therefore suspend belief—negative atheism is in fact compatible with agnosticism.

Atheism has wide-ranging implications for the human condition. In the absence of belief in god, ethical goals must be determined by secular (nonreligious) aims and concerns, human beings must take full responsibility for their destiny, and death marks the end of a person’s existence. As of 1994 there were an estimated 240 million atheists around the world comprising slightly more than 4 percent of the world’s population, including those who profess atheism, skepticism, disbelief, or irreligion. The estimate of nonbelievers increases significantly, to about 21 percent of the world’s population, if negative atheists are included.

II

SCOPE OF ATHEISM

From ancient times, people have at times used atheism as a term of abuse for religious positions they opposed. The first Christians were called atheists because they denied the existence of the Roman deities. Over time, several misunderstandings of atheism have arisen: that atheists are immoral, that morality (see ethics) cannot be justified without belief in God, and that life has no purpose without belief in God. Yet there is no evidence that atheists are any less moral than believers. Many systems of morality have been developed that do not presuppose the existence of a supernatural being. Moreover, the purpose of human life may be based on secular goals, such as the betterment of humankind.

In Western society the term atheism has been used more narrowly to refer to the denial of theism, in particular Judeo-Christian theism, which asserts the existence of an all-powerful, all-knowing, all-good personal being. This being created the universe, takes an active interest in human concerns, and guides his creatures through divine disclosure known as revelation. Positive atheists reject this theistic God and the associated beliefs in an afterlife, a cosmic destiny, a supernatural origin of the universe, an immortal soul, the revealed nature of the Bible and the Qur'an (Koran), and a religious foundation for morality.

Theism, however, is not a characteristic of all religions. Some religions reject theism but are not entirely atheistic. Although the theistic tradition is fully developed in the Bhagavad-Gita, the sacred text of Hinduism, earlier Hindu writings known as the Upanishads teach that Brahman (ultimate reality) is impersonal. Positive atheists reject even the pantheistic aspects of Hinduism that equate God with the universe. Several other Eastern religions, including Theravada Buddhism and Jainism, are commonly believed to be atheistic, but this interpretation is not strictly correct. These religions do reject a theistic God believed to have created the universe, but they accept numerous lesser gods. At most, such religions are atheistic in the narrow sense of rejecting theism.

III

HISTORY

In the Western intellectual world, nonbelief in the existence of God is a widespread phenomenon with a long and distinguished history. Philosophers of the ancient world such as Lucretius were nonbelievers. Even in the Middle Ages (5th century to 15th century) there were currents of thought that questioned theist assumptions, including skepticism, the doctrine that true knowledge is impossible, and naturalism, the belief that only natural forces control the world. Several leading thinkers of the Enlightenment (1700-1789) were professed atheists, including Danish writer Baron Holbach and French encyclopedist Denis Diderot. Expressions of nonbelief also are found in classics of Western literature, including the writings of English poets Percy Shelley and Lord Byron; English novelist Thomas Hardy; French philosophers Voltaire and Jean-Paul Sartre; Russian author Ivan Turgenev; and American writers Mark Twain and Upton Sinclair. In the 19th century the most articulate and best-known atheists and critics of religion were German philosophers Ludwig Feuerbach, Karl Marx, Arthur Schopenhauer, and Friedrich Nietzsche. British philosopher Bertrand Russell, Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, and Sartre are among the 20th century’s most influential atheists.

IV

REASONS FOR REJECTING GOD

Friedrich Nietzsche

Nineteenth-century German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche was an influential critic of religious systems, especially Christianity, which he felt chained society to a herd morality. By declaring that “God is dead,” Nietzsche signified that traditional religious belief in God no longer played a central role in human experience. Nietzsche believed we would have to find secular justifications for morality to avoid nihilism--the absence of all belief.

The New York Public Library

A

Criticisms of Theism

Atheists justify their philosophical position in several different ways. Negative atheists attempt to establish their position by refuting typical theist arguments for the existence of God, such as the argument from first cause, the argument from design, the ontological argument, and the argument from religious experience (see Theism: Arguments for Theism). Other negative atheists assert that any statement about God is meaningless, because attributes such as all-knowing and all-powerful cannot be comprehended by the human mind. Positive atheists, on the other hand, defend their position by arguing that the concept of God is inconsistent. They question, for example, whether a God who is all-knowing can also be all-good and how a God who lacks bodily existence can be all-knowing.

B

The Problem of Evil

Some positive atheists have maintained that the existence of evil makes the existence of God improbable. In particular, atheists assert that theism does not provide an adequate explanation for the existence of seemingly gratuitous evil, such as the suffering of innocent children. Theists commonly defend the existence of evil by claiming that God desires that human beings have the freedom to choose between good and evil, or that the purpose of evil is to build human character, such as the ability to persevere. Positive atheists counter that justifications for evil in terms of human free will leave unexplained why, for example, children suffer because of genetic diseases or abuse from adults. Arguments that God allows pain and suffering to build human character fail, in turn, to explain why there was suffering among animals before human beings evolved and why human character could not be developed with less suffering than occurs in the world. For atheists, a better explanation for the presence of evil in the world is that God does not exist.

C

Historical Evidence

David Hume

In An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding (first published in 1748 under a different title), Scottish philosopher David Hume offers several criticisms of religious belief, including an argument against belief in miracles. According to Hume, testimony about the occurrence of miracles should be subjected to rational standards of evidence.

THE BETTMANN ARCHIVE

Atheists have also criticized historical evidence used to support belief in the major theistic religions. For example, atheists have argued that a lack of evidence casts doubt on important doctrines of Christianity, such as the virgin birth and the resurrection of Jesus Christ. Because such events are said to represent miracles, atheists assert that extremely strong evidence is necessary to support their occurrence. According to atheists, the available evidence to support these alleged miracles—from Biblical, pagan, and Jewish sources—is weak, and therefore such claims should be rejected.

V

DIVERSITY IN ATHEISM

Atheism is primarily a reaction to, or a rejection of, religious belief, and thus does not determine other philosophical beliefs. Atheism has sometimes been associated with the philosophical ideas of materialism, which holds that only matter exists; communism, which asserts that religion impedes human progress; and rationalism, which emphasizes analytic reasoning over other sources of knowledge. However, there is no necessary connection between atheism and these positions. Some atheists have opposed communism and some have rejected materialism. Although nearly all contemporary materialists are atheists, the ancient Greek materialist Epicurus believed the gods were made of matter in the form of atoms. Rationalists such as French philosopher René Descartes have believed in God, whereas atheists such as Sartre are not considered to be rationalists. Atheism has also been associated with systems of thought that reject authority, such as anarchism, a political theory opposed to all forms of government, and existentialism, a philosophic movement that emphasizes absolute human freedom of choice; there is however no necessary connection between atheism and these positions. British analytic philosopher A. J. Ayer was an atheist who opposed existentialism, while Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard was an existentialist who accepted God. Marx was an atheist who rejected anarchism while Russian novelist Leo Tolstoy, a Christian, embraced anarchism. Because atheism in a strict sense is merely a negation, it does not provide a comprehensive worldview. It is therefore not possible to presume other philosophical positions to be outgrowths of atheism.

Intellectual debate over the existence of God continues to be active, especially on college campuses, in religious discussion groups, and in electronic forums on the Internet. In contemporary philosophical thought, atheism has been defended by British philosopher Antony Flew, Australian philosopher John Mackie, and American philosopher Michael Martin, among others. Leading organizations of unbelief in the United States include The American Atheists, The Committee for the Scientific Study of Religion, and The Internet Infidels.